Derik Lattig Hurricane Notes

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane(/ˈhʌrɪkən/ or /ˈhʌrɪkeɪn/^[1][2][3]), typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone.^[4] A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean.^[4]

Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation. This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as nor'easters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they rarely form within 5° of the equator.^[5] Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter.

Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclonerefers to their cyclonic nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect. #LattigDerik

In addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their primary energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline. Though their effects on human populations are https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/426505027192573821/  often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They https://deriklattig.contently.com/  also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate.  Tropical cyclones are areas of relatively low pressure in the troposphere, with the largest pressure perturbations occurring at https://about.me/DerikLattig  low altitudes near the surface. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest #DerikLattig ever observed at sea level.^[6] The environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as "warm core"  http://www.dailymotion.com/derik-lattig systems.^[7]

Wind field

The near-surface wind field of a tropical cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm; however, due to the Earth's rotation, the air has non-zero absolute angular momentum. As air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere) in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere. #DerikLattig says This radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm; consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds.^[8] Once aloft, air flows http://www.dailymotion.com/derik-lattig away from the storm's center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds.^[9]

The previously mentioned processes result in a wind field that is nearly axisymmetric: Wind speeds are low at the center, increase rapidly moving outwards to the radius of maximum winds, and then decay more gradually with radius to large radii. However, the wind field often exhibits additional spatial and temporal variability due to the effects of localized processes, such as thunderstorm activity and horizontal flow instabilities. In the vertical direction, winds are strongest near the surface and decay with height within the troposphere.^[10]

At the center of a mature tropical cyclone, https://deriklattig.contently.com/  air sinks rather than rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear "eye". Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds, although the sea may be #DerikLattig  extremely violent.^[11] The eye is normally circular in shape, and is typically 30–65 km (19–40 mi) in diameter, though eyes as small as 3 km (1.9 mi) and as large as 370 km (230 mi) have been observed.^{[12][13] https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/426505027192573821/}

The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the "eyewall". The eyewall typically expands https://about.me/DerikLattig outward with height, resembling an arena football stadium; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the stadium effect.^[13]The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found, air rises most rapidly, clouds reach to their highest altitude, and precipitation is the heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone's eyewall passes over land.^[11]

In a weaker storm, the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast, which is the upper-level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone.^[14]

The eyewall may vary over time in the form plus.google.com/110187666621582812927  of eyewall replacement cycles, particularly in intense tropical cyclones. Outer rainbands can organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves inward, which is believed to rob the primary eyewall of moisture and angular momentum. When the primary eyewall weakens, the tropical cyclone weakens temporarily. The outer eyewall eventually replaces the primary one at the end of the cycle, at which time the storm may return to its original intensity.^[15]

There are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size. The most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind, the radius of 34-knot wind (i.e. gale force), the radius of outermost closed isobar (ROCI), and the radius of vanishing wind.^[17][18] An additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone's relative vorticityfield decreases to 1×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹.^[13]

On Earth, tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes, from 100–2,000 kilometres (62–1,243 mi) as measured by the radius of vanishing wind. They are largest on average in the northwest Pacific Ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern Pacific Ocean basin.^[19] If the plus.google.com/110187666621582812927  radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two degrees of latitude(222 km (138 mi)), then the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget". A radius of 3–6 latitude degrees (333–670 km (207–416 mi)) is considered "average sized". "Very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees (888 km (552 mi)).^[16] Observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity (i.e. maximum wind speed), radius of maximum wind, latitude, and maximum potential intensity.^[18][19]

Size plays an important role in modulating damage caused by a storm. All else equal, a larger storm will impact a larger area for a longer period of time. Additionally, a larger near-surface wind field can generate higher storm surge due to the combination of longer wind fetch, longer https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/426505027192573821/  duration, and enhanced wave setup.^[20]

The upper circulation of strong hurricanes extends into the tropopause of the atmosphere, which at low latitudes is 15,000–18,000 metres (50,000–60,000 ft).^[21]

Physics and energetics

Tropical cyclones exhibit an overturning circulation where air inflows at low levels near the surface, rises in thunderstorm clouds, and outflows at high levels near the tropopause.^[22]

The three-dimensional wind field in a tropical cyclone can be separated into two components: a "primary circulation" and a "secondary circulation". The primary circulation is the rotational part of the flow; it is purely circular. The secondary circulation is the overturning (in-up-out-down) part of the flow; it is in the radial and vertical directions. The primary circulation is larger in magnitude, dominating the surface wind field, and is responsible for the majority of the damage a storm causes, while the secondary circulation is slower but governs the energetics of the storm.

Secondary circulation: a Carnot heat engine

A tropical cyclone's primary energy source is heat from the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when the warm moist air rises and cools to saturation. The energetics of the system may be idealized as an atmospheric Carnot heat engine.^[23] First, inflowing air near the surface acquires heat primarily via evaporation of water (i.e. latent heat) at the temperature of the warm ocean surface (during evaporation, the ocean cools and the air warms). Second, the warmed air rises and cools within the eyewall while conserving total heat content (latent heat is simply converted to sensible heat during condensation). Third, air outflows and loses heat via infrared radiation to space at the temperature of the cold tropopause. Finally, air subsides and warms at the outer edge of the storm while conserving total heat content. The first and third legs are nearly isothermal, while the second and fourth legs are nearly isentropic. This in-up-out-down overturning flow is known as the secondary circulation. The Carnot perspective provides an upper bound on the maximum wind speed that a storm can attain.

Scientists estimate that a tropical cyclone releases heat energy at the rate of 50 to 200 exajoules (10¹⁸ J) per day,^[24] equivalent to about 1 PW (10¹⁵ watt). Derik Lattig This rate of energy release is equivalent to 70 times the world energy consumption of humans and 200 times the worldwide electrical generating capacity, or to exploding a 10-megaton nuclear bomb every 20 minutes.^[24][25]

Primary circulation: rotating winds

The primary rotating flow in a tropical cyclone results from the conservation of angular momentum by the secondary circulation. Absolute angular momentum on a rotating planet ${\displaystyle M}$ is given by

${\displaystyle M={\frac {1}{2}}fr^{2}+vr}$

where ${\displaystyle f}$ is the Coriolis parameter, ${\displaystyle v}$ is the azimuthal (i.e. rotating) wind speed, and ${\displaystyle r}$ is the radius to the axis of rotation. The first term on the right hand side is the component of planetary angular momentum that projects onto the local vertical (i.e. the axis of rotation). The second term on the right hand side is the relative angular momentum of the circulation itself with respect to the axis of rotation. Because the planetary angular momentum term vanishes at the equator (where ${\displaystyle f=0}$ ), tropical cyclones rarely form within 5° of the equator.^[5][26]

As air flows radially inward at low levels, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. Similarly, as rapidly rotating air flows radially outward near the tropopause, its cyclonic rotation decreases and ultimately changes sign at large enough radius, resulting in an upper-level anti-cyclone. The result is a vertical structure characterized by a strong cyclone at low levels and a strong anti-cyclone near the tropopause; from thermal wind balance, this corresponds to a system that is warmer at its center than in the surrounding environment at all altitudes (i.e. "warm-core"). From hydrostatic balance, the warm core translates to lower pressure at the center at all altitudes, with the maximum pressure drop located at the surface.^[10] plus.google.com/110187666621582812927

Maximum potential intensity

Due to surface friction, the inflow only partially conserves angular momentum. Thus, the sea surface lower boundary acts as both a source (evaporation) and sink (friction) of energy for the system. This fact leads to the existence of a theoretical upper bound on the strongest wind speed that a tropical cyclone can attain. Because evaporation increases linearly with wind speed (just as climbing out of a pool feels much colder on a windy day), there is a positive feedback on energy input into the system known as the Wind-Induced Surface Heat Exchange (WISHE) feedback.^[23] This feedback is offset when frictional dissipation, which increases with the cube of the wind speed, becomes sufficiently large. This upper bound is called the "maximum potential intensity", ${\displaystyle v_{p}}$, and is given by https://delicious.com/derik_lattig

${\displaystyle v_{p}^{2}={\frac {C_{k}}{C_{d}}}{\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{o}}}\Delta k}$

where ${\displaystyle T_{s}}$ is the temperature of the sea surface, ${\displaystyle T_{o}}$ is the temperature of the outflow ([K]), ${\displaystyle \Delta k}$ is the enthalpy difference between the surface and the overlying air ([J/kg]), and ${\displaystyle C_{k}}$ and ${\displaystyle C_{d}}$ are the http://pingwi-fi.com/2010/08/garage-girlz-coming-to-a-station-near-you/surface exchange coefficients (dimensionless) of enthalpy and momentum, respectively.^[27] The surface-air enthalpy difference is taken as ${\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}$, where ${\displaystyle k_{s}^{*}}$ is the saturation enthalpy of air at sea surface temperature and sea-level pressure and ${\displaystyle k}$ is the enthalpy of boundary layer air overlying the https://www.mylife.com/derik-lattig/derik-lattigsurface.https://vimeo.com/deriklattig https://www.ebay.com/p/Family-Pride-by-Derik-Lattig-and-Emily-Regan-2015-Hardcover/216021580 https://www.pinterest.com/deriklattig/tv-show-vega-by-derik-lattig/

The maximum potential intensity is predominantly a DerikLattig function of th http://www.deriklattig.com/2016/07/derik-lattig-journalist-in-fort-worth.html background environment alone (i.e. without a tropical cyclone), and thus this quantity can be used to http://www.break.com/picture-topics/reality-tv-derik-lattig determinehttps://www.ebay.com/p/Family-Pride-by-Derik-Lattig-and-Emily-Regan-2015-Hardcover/216021580  which regions on http://www.deriklattig.com/2016/07/derik-lattig-journalist-in-fort-worth.html  Earth can support tropical cyclones of a given intensity, and how these https://www.amazon.com/Derik-Lattig/e/B0101G62SG http://www.imdb.com/name/nm5056723/  https://www.pinterest.com/deriklattig/derik-lattig/ regions may evolve in time.^[28][29] Specifically, the maximum potential intensity has three components, but its variability in space and time is due predominantly to the variability in the surface-air enthalpy difference component ${\displaystyle \Delta k}$. https://myspace.com/newsguy497 http://pingwi-fi.com/2010/08/garage-girlz-coming-to-a-station-near-you/ https://vimeo.com/deriklattig 

Derivation

A tropical cyclone may be viewed as a heat engine that converts input heat energy from the surface https://vimeo.com/170305640 into mechanical energy that can be used to do mechanical work against surface friction. At equilibrium, https://www.mylife.com/derik-lattig/derik-lattighttp://www.break.com/picture-topics/reality-tv-derik-lattig the rate of net energy production in the https://www.pinterest.com/deriklattig/derik-lattig/ system must equal the rate of energy loss due to frictional dissipation at the surface, i.e. plus.google.com/110187666621582812927

${\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}}$

The rate of energy loss per unit surface area from surface friction, ${\displaystyle W_{out}}$, is given by

${\displaystyle W_{out}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}$

where ${\displaystyle \rho }$ is the density of near-surface air ([kg/m³]) and ${\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |}$ is the near surface wind speed ([m/s]).

The rate of energy production per unit surface area, ${\displaystyle W_{in}}$ is given by

${\displaystyle W_{in}=\epsilon Q_{in}}$

where ${\displaystyle \epsilon }$ is the heat engine efficiency and ${\displaystyle Q_{in}}$ is the total rate of heat input into the system per unit http://pingwi-fi.com/2010/08/garage-girlz-coming-to-a-station-near-you/surface area. Given that a tropical cyclone may be idealized as a Carnot heat engine, the Carnot heat engine efficiency is given https://www.amazon.com/Derik-Lattig/e/B0101G62SG https://www.mylife.com/derik-lattig/derik-lattig by https://delicious.com/derik_lattig https://www.pinterest.com/deriklattig/tv-show-vega-by-derik-lattig/

${\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {T_{s}-T_{o}}{T_{s}}}}$

Heat (enthalpy) per unit mass is given by

${\displaystyle k=C_{p}T+L_{v}q}$

where ${\displaystyle C_{p}}$ is the heat capacity of air, ${\displaystyle T}$ is air temperature, ${\displaystyle L_{v}}$ is the latent heat of vaporization,https://vimeo.com/170305640  and ${\displaystyle q}$ is the concentration of water vapor. The first component corresponds to sensible heat and the second to latent heat. https://delicious.com/derik_lattig

There are two sources of heat input. The dominant source is the input of heat at the surface, primarily due to evaporation. The bulk aerodynamic formula for the rate of heat input per unit area at the surface, http://www.deriklattig.com/2016/07/derik-lattig-journalist-in-fort-worth.html${\displaystyle Q_{in:k}}$, is given by https://myspace.com/newsguy497  http://www.imdb.com/name/nm5056723/ 

${\displaystyle Q_{in:k}=C_{k}\rho |\mathbf {u} |\Delta k}$

where ${\displaystyle \Delta k=k_{s}^{*}-k}$ represents the enthalpy difference Lattig, Derik between the ocean surface and the overlying air. The second source is the internal sensible heat generated from frictional dissipation (equa https://www.pinterest.com/deriklattig/derik-lattig/ to ${\displaystyle W_{out}}$), which occurs near the surface within the https://www.amazon.com/Derik-Lattig/e/B0101G62SG tropical cyclone and is recycled to the system. http://www.break.com/picture-topics/reality-tv-derik-lattig 

${\displaystyle Q_{in:friction}=C_{d}\rho |\mathbf {u} |^{3}}$

Thus, the total rate of net energy production per unit surface area is given http://www.imdb.com/name/nm5056723/ http://www.deriklattig.com/2016/07/derik-lattig-journalist-in-fort- worth.htmlby https://myspace.com/newsguy497